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When I was 12, or 13, I cannot even remember exactly when that happened, long ago, I was reading a book by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, it was called The White Company. It was an action book, also related to history, my favorite type during that time period. In that novel there was given an account of a certain wrestling match which happened in a pub called Pied Merlin and was carried under the catch as catch can rules. And certain verses from that book just got stuck in my mind, these:

“How shall it be, then, mon enfant? Collar and elbow, or close-lock, or catch how you can?”…” “Shalt clip me as best you can then,” quoth the archer”…” As big John flung himself upon him, the archer ducked under the great red hands that clutched for him, and, catching his man round the thighs, hurled him over his shoulder”.

I didn’t know much about wrestling history back then, other than that it was an essential Olympic sport, and it was my very first time when I accidentally was introduced into the world of catch wrestling. Ironically the decider in that match was an infamous Lancashire Throw or a pro wrestling’s most famous Back Body Drop. I couldn’t have even imagined that this short intro, just few phrases from that book where the catch wrestling was mentioned, were going to change my life and in the future will become a subject of my major wrestling history research. In the sweet memory of that I chose The Wrestling Match at the "Pied Merlin" (1922), a painting by N.C. Wyeth, which is based on Conan Doyle’s The White Company to be a cover picture of this article.

During my Lancashire studies when I like Columbus (lol) tenaciously and desperately was searching for the “new territories” the places in eastern parts of Lancashire where at some point the sport of up and down fighting flourished, I was lucky to discover the township of Over Darwen in Blackburn Hundred of Lancashire. This locality produced arguably the toughest “feyters-n- rosslers” of this part of Lancashire County. Thus the Land of Over Darwen Champions was added to the very beloved child of mine The Map of Lancashire Wrestling and Fighting Traditions. 

The story of Over Darwen men visiting different towns where they had Wakes and Fairs which among other folk sports always featured up and down fights, and challenging local champions, participating in the fights which made them legends of their own vicinity originates from History and Tradions of Darwen And Its People, by J. G. Shaw (1889).

“Passing by Rushton Heights and Baron's, we rapidly descend through Blacksnape, in the days of hand-loom weaving a populous and thriving hamlet, the abode of many respectable families, but now showing on all sides evidence of decay. For nearly half-a-mile the road is bordered with houses, some roofless, others neat and tidy as of old, and mostly occupied by a hardy race, who linger on "the tope," and love their keen breezes more than the shelter of the valley. Amongst this population the dialect is preserved it its most racy forms, and stories of the past linger long, how famous wrestlers went forth to challenge the champions of other townships; how football matches had been played for generations with the men of Offiside and Tottington, said matches nearly always ending in fights which called out the manhood of half-a-dozen valleys; and how young men had gone forth and won glory on nobler fields, marching beneath the banners of England thro' the long Peninsular War, assisting to overthrow the Great Emperor at Waterloo, and following him to his grave beneath the willows of St. Helena.”

There obviously was a local hero, named James Marsden, the master of thousand and one wrestling holds of whom we learn from the paragraphs below.

“There was one old fellow of the name of James Marsden living at Blacksnape when I was a lad, and he had sprung from one of the brothers of James the First. He was rather a notorious character. They called him "Owd Jem o' Isaac's." His chief forte was fighting-fighting and drinking. In those days fighting didn't mean boxing or fencing and striking only above the belt, but dashing in anyhow with fists and feet alike. Owd Jem was ready with both, and he didn't care which.

Neither did he care whether he fell under or over his adversaries; he could always "lick 'em." If he were on the top he gave them a good pummelling, and if he were underneath he had a trick of gripping them in his arms like a Russian bear and squeezing the breath out of them, while, at the same time, he brought down his heels upon their legs like sledge hammers. They used to say that to get in Owd Jem's embrace was like getting into an hydraulic press. I remember he once went to Haslingden Fair, and Haslington Fair 70 or 80 years back was as noted for fighting as Turton Fair used to be not long ago. The rough characters for miles round used to go to Haslingden Fair for a spree and a fight, and, of course, Owd Jem went too.

On this particular occasion there was a man there who had come for a fight, and he kept getting on the top of the horse block, or "riding stone," as we called it, at the Roebuck Inn, Dearden Gate, just going into Haslingden from this end. From the top of this stone he kept swaggering that he would fight any man in Haslingden. A great crowd gathered round him, but nobody durst take up his challenge until Owd Jem came up. Jem sneeringly said-" Whod ar' ta mekkin thi noise abeawt? Con la feight onny ?" "Why, con yo' ?" replied the other in a somewhat milder tone. "Come off thooase steps, and aw'll let thi' see," says Jem. The man came down and squared up for a fight, but before he could make any use of his fists Owd Jem flew at him and threw him down, and as the bully turned tail he punched him all the way down the street. The crowd followed, and ginger bread stalls and toy stalls were scattered in all directions. When Jem had finished with him, and the defeated bully had fairly run away, the crowd made a collection to reward the "Darruner" for licking the fellow who had terrorised over them so much. I should say it is quite 85 years since that happened.”

Among the most famous 18c Over Darwen “feyters” was a colorful individual by the name of Burgoin Fish, the future Methodist preacher, about that we also learn from the same book. Interestingly they mention him competing at the Turton Fair, which along with the Holcombe Wakes was notorious for its deadliest most atrocious up and down fights.

“A small Methodist Society was formed in Over Darwen about 1785, and the members were pelted with stones and rotten eggs by their persecutors on their way to the meetings at Blackburn. Mr. Ralph Entwistle, of Sough, had entertained John Wesley on his journeys through Darwen from Bolton to Blackburn, and he joined the Methodist Society formed by William Greenwood, tailor, William Crook, tailor, and Richard Cross, shoemaker.
Burgoin Fish was one of their earliest and most noteworthy converts. He joined the Society in 1788. A pamphlet was published in Halifax in 1848, entitled "The Power of Divine Grace, as illustrated in the Conversion, Consistent Life, and Peaceful Death of Burgoin Fish, of Waterside [Glossop], late of Darwen. (By his Class-Leader.)" It relates that Burgoin was born at Darwen Chapels, in May, 1766, and that he grew up a strong athletic young fellow and a notorious prize-fighter. At the age of 22 he was going to fight the champion of Turton, at Turton Fair, when "the Lord arrested him by the way as he did Saul of Tarsus. ... as sudden as the lightning's flash." At that time (1788) the Methodists were few in Darwen and much persecuted, Burgoin being one of their persecutors, but immediately after his conversion he went to the Methodist meeting in Water Street and joined the class. The "rage of persecution" Darwen was stopped, Burgoin being now a stout defender of the new sect. He removed to Waterside in the Glossop circuit in 1837, and died there in the 81st year of his age, having been for 59 years an carnest and consistent member of the Wesleyan Society.
In 1809 Giles Haworth was the class leader at Lower Darwen, and the names of four other members are on record. There were at that time 70 members of the Society in Over Darwen, the leaders being William Greenwood, Joseph Whittaker, John Entwistle, James Smith, and Burgoyne Fish.”

The Timeline of Lancashire Wrestling.
 (Starting 1828).

- WHERE? - IN ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE!
There are no credible evidences or records of an organized prize-wrestling in South and East Lancashire before the year of 1828. I have a large collection of old broadsheets from South Lancashire in my possession which features all kinds of traditional English sports that were played during the local Wakes, Rushbearings, Fairs,  and etc. festivals and there’s not even a single mention of wrestling contest in them. Similar ads from the other so-called “wrestling regions” of England always mention the game of wrestling. This fact makes me think that in the eastern parts of Lancashire (Salford and Blackburn Hundreds) running open to all wrestling competitions or even a single combat challenge matches wasn’t common. Instead, there is a rich and very old culture which surrounds the local variation of prize-fighting, aka the Lancashire up and down fight. Such fights were mentioned literally everywhere, any big sporting gathering had them.

The earliest recorded official pro-wrestling match in this area happened in Ashton-under-Lyne, in October 1828, and was a challenge match between the two “wrestling celebrities” from the South Lancashire mill-towns of Bolton and Bury.

-WHY? TO SAVE THE BUSINESS AND MAKE MONEY SAFELY!
The year 1828 was a very important year for English prize wrestling. On Easter holiday the gentry of the City of Leeds, in the neighboring with Lancs, the West Riding of Yorkshire, held an open to all wrestling championship tourney. It was a tourney in traditional English jacket-style of wrestling, in which only holds of the jackets being allowed, often this style was referred to as a “one hand to collar” wrestling. The rules stated: “is to take hold of the other by the collar, after which they may shift their hold to any other part of the jacket they please”.  By the way the English wrestling jacket, unlike the Cornish jacket, was a tight, perfect fit short fustian jacket. Unfortunately the Cornish sportsmen ignored this tourney, I am surprised they decided not to participate in this big wrestling gathering but very likely they were against the “each man to wear a fair shoe and padding, if he chooses” thing. That condition was the main difference between Cornish and English jacket-wrestling styles, the Englishmen always wrestled in shoes. The Englishmen from various regions of the country did show up and participated. The competition was obviously dominated by the Devonian athletes, the best collar style wrestlers of England, and their hero A. Cann was an easy winner of the championship honors.

Notably, no local West Yorkshire wrestlers participated in that tourney, neither the wrestlers from neighboring South and East Lancs areas did. This fact tells us that a jacket-style wrestling was either not known to them or simply not practiced. One of the articles of the rules which governed the Leeds championship tourney stated – no holds below the waist allowed. My guess is that this paragraph was added to the rules because in West Yorks and South and East Lancs the wrestling holds below the waist were accepted as a fair wrestling technique. For the wrestlers from all other regions this was a no go, so there was no reasons to even mention it. So to say that addition to the rules was made specifically for the local men, to make sure that Yorks and Lancs wrestlers, if they decided to participate, will not turn normal English collar-wrestling into something else.

Even in the 1880s, when the jacket-style wrestling lost its popularity, during the heyday of the English Catch-hold wrestling, the holds below the waist were still considered an unfair action.

Conceptual Approach. What is English Wrestling?

“CONCLUDING REMARKS. To be a good wrestler, quickness of eye, agility of movement, strength of arm and leg, and equability of temper are indispensable. A good even green turf is requisite for a very hard soil presents too much resistance to the foot, while a soft one causes the players to slip and stamble. The dress should be light and easy; a pair of woollen or linen trousers, confined at the waist by a belt, an elastic shirt, and thin shoes and stockings, being all that are necessary. Professional wrestlers, indeed, dispense with all but the trousers; but when you wrestle for mere amusement, your ordinary cricketing costume, minus the spiked shoes, will serve admirably. It is expressly forbidden by the etiquette of the sport for either player to seize his opponent by the throat or below the belt, to use the fist, or in any other way to take undue or unfair advantage.” (The Boys Own Book, A Complete Encyclopedia of Sports, by Wm Clarke 1885).

The ads of the Leeds Easter Tourney, as well as some details about the championship, like mentioning the participants and the matches’ results, appeared in Manchester press and that for sure grew interest of the local sports promoters, the publicans, to the game of wrestling which was neglected in South Lancashire areas for so long. A reason of this interest had also something to do with the strict prosecution of their favorite sport, the Lancashire up and down fighting, by the late 1820s it became illegal, and the organizers as well as the participants of those wild exhibitions were haunted by the local police. This business was unsafe. And yes of course the fighters themselves got maimed or permanently injured very often in this type of fighting. The publicans were about to lose a whole fighting industry, their main business, and many good “feyters” became soon “unemployed”.

This particular situation caused a certain interest, which made the sport-promoters of the South Lancashire to consider running Lancashire prize wrestling matches, instead of Lancashire fighting contests, something that was never done locally before. But their choice could not have been the sophisticated Cornish jacket-style, because its extensive wrestling vocabulary was unfamiliar in this region of England, and if introduced, it would have been perceived as nothing but an old brutal English tugging and clog-kicking game which was well known and widely practiced in Lancs, just like it was everywhere else in England. Yes, it was their wrestling style too, “giving a Lanky” simply meant kicking a person to the ground. And the “bosses” obviously didn’t want that. They wanted something else, a legit official sport of their own, hence called “Lancashire”, the sport recognized and accepted by the modern English society.  And of course the chosen sport should have been a safe sport, safe for everyone, for the players as well as for the business owners, which the first decades of catch proved it was, there were no recorded deaths in this style of prize wrestling since its introduction.

The newborn game was designed to save the business and to become the safest way to make money, in compare to what the illegal up and down fighting was, to employ all the local gamesters, and quickly capitalize on it! Re-branding (wrestling instead of fighting) was an ultimate solution of local promoters! The publicans of Ashton were the true fathers of Lancashire catch wrestling, the originators of the game that was destined to change pro wrestling history once and forever.

-WHAT? – CATCH AS CATCH CAN!
The style of wrestling they chose to become official Lancashire prize wrestling was a catch-hold of any part of the body above and under the waist line, a freestyle wrestling. The definition of fall, they used, or a fair back fall, was taken from the contemporary Cornish-Devon sources which were available through major English sporting publications, “two shoulders should strike the ground together”.  But they ignored the other part of that rule which clearly states “and before any other part of the body” so to say it has to be a Cornish-Devonian fall,  directly onto shoulders. They, Lankies, instead, didn’t care much for that detail. Giving adversary a foil, first, and then not letting go the hold of him trying to turn him onto his back became a common scenario of most of early Lancs wrestling matches, and as a matter of fact this exhibition did look funny to most of the observants of this new kind of wrestling, especially when the attacker grabbing his opponent by the legs felled them onto their hands, or bellies, and then tries to overturn them by twisting their legs, and them walking on their hands or standing on their heads, whole thing did look somewhat comical, strange, foreign to a trained eye of a normal English wrestling practitioner or to a fan who saw wrestling at the big Cornish-Devon or Cumberland wrestling gatherings.

Another important detail was that at that early stage of Lancs wrestling history there was no agreement to whether actual prolonged struggle on the ground, on all fours as they say should be allowed or not. Some said that wrestling contests should not be conducted under the up and down system which dominated local prize fighting for centuries. Those wanted it to be a fair or upright style for the most part. But as a matter of fact most of the pro wrestlers of that very first generation were employed from the former up and down fighters and they simply weren’t willing to learn to wrestle on their feet and basically dictated the fashions, what the new style of wrestling should be like. Those obviously chose familiar to them the up and down variation of catch as catch can wrestling. Bottom-line is that the wrestling vocabulary of the early Lancashire catch as catch can was based on the type of wrestling which was part of up and down fighting culture, so to say it was not a normal, generally accepted idea of what English wrestling is.

The adopted in Lancashire definition of fair back fall meant an instant touching or striking of two shoulders together, a touch-fall speaking the modern wrestling terminology, and that of course also included the so called rolling falls, when wrestler rolled from one shoulder to the other.

Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle - Sunday, 09 July 1843; Page 2.

"RIDINGS AND CLOUGH.-A vast concourse of spectators assembled on the bowling-green of the Humphrey Chetham, near the Manchester Water Works, on Monday, to witness a trial of strength and skill in the Lancashire fashion, between Adam Ridings alias Dockem, of Bury, and George Clough, the Black Diamond, of Clifton, the best of three fair back falls for £10 a-side. About half-past three the magnets of the day came forth in wrestling trim, and two fine young men they appeared. Clough had the advantage in weight, but the odds ran as high as 2 to 1 against him. 

They were not long in commencing operations, when Adam caught his man in his arms, and gave him one of the cleverest cross buttocks ever seen, which Jack M'Grath designated a catherine wheel; the round only lasted two minutes. 

The next bout was undecided, although in the opinion of many it was a fair fall in favour of Adam, as Clough was certainly on one shoulder when quitted, and turned over on the other instead of his breast. 

The third was an easy fall in favour of Clough, through Adam outstriding himself, 4 to 1 on Adam, who went in and completed his job in a masterly manner."

Although the organized prize wrestling was not known locally, this fact does not speak for the game of wrestling being unknown to the native residents of that region prior the 1828 Ashton event. The pub-wrestle, the wrestling challenges in local pubs for a drink, or for a little wager with few pence, or a shilling aside being at stake, or a wrestle out of pure curiosity as to find out “who is a better man”, or simply for fun, happened quite often and are well documented in my book THE STORY OF CATCH (2019). As it seems to me wrestling was understood by the local people as a skill of felling a person to the ground (in local dialect is was known as a thrut, wrestle for a thrut) without resorting to kicks, blows and etc unfair actions. It does look like local wrestlers weren’t familiar with the “noble art of tripping” which formed an essence of English jacket-style wrestling, they mostly wrestled with their hands, arms and widely utilized the physical strength of their bodies, instead of using their feet and legs for throwing their adversaries to the ground. Catching advantageous hold or struggling for such hold was the main focus of local gamesters. Taking holds of any part of the person’s body was allowed, as well as was the instant felling opponent from his knees after either of the two or both were down on their knees, though the actual struggle on the ground was not allowed, even though in the City of Manchester these were not considered a fair wrestling strategy. Local wrestling practitioners only had 3 holds in their dictionary, the variations of chancery hold, single leg, and double leg. And it was from these holds that they would attempt to send their opponents onto their backs. Just like in other regions of England the fair-fall, or the fall was on one’s back, a horizontal flat back fall, and any other kind of fall was seen as a foul-fall, or a foil. Lancashire wrestlers were very proficient in their mode of wrestling. It is a known fact that the Manchester’s Chetham School youngsters favorite pastime was that of wrestling. Despite all that there were no wrestling gatherings in Lancashire let’s say similar to those which were held elsewhere in England, in such places as West Country, North Country or in Berkshire, counties of Norfolk and Lincolnshire.

Wrestling skill, or the skill of felling opponent, also played a very important role in the up and down Lancashire style of fighting, the only professional combative sport of local men. This sport as shown above wasn’t a fair upright fighting, the object of this kind of fighting was to take down, to throw your opponent on the ground first, and then deliver them all kinds of punishment, make them quit and say “I yield!”, it was even allowed to kick a helpless person, who were previously thrown.

This short paragraph from the 19c press links together the two Lancashire sports, the newborn catch wrestling and the old up and down fighting. Interestingly, the author does mention the full-Nelson hold, a hold which likely was the most common “wrestling” finisher in the fights after the Lanky fashion.

Frankly, the full-Nelson or a Pillory Hold as it was commonly known in England since probably early 18c, or even before that time, was not exclusive to Lancashire wrestling traditions, it was mentioned under this name in the famous Yorkshires’ Z. Wylde treatise on manly arts of self-defense. Another important detail is that it was not referred to as a legit hold in the game of wrestling, but rather as a way to overcome your adversary using wrestling skill and thus give them a lesson, punish their arrogance.

There has been a great deal of discussion of why nelson hold is being called the nelson. My explanation of that is actually pretty simple and sure is based on logic and common sense. Whether you call it a pillory, which was a medieval instrument of public punishment, or a nelson, what you mean is that the arms (or an arm in the case with half-nelson) of a person are locked in a specific way, and thus are disengaged, he simply cannot use them. Interesting coincident, but the famous admiral Lord Horatio Nelson lost his right arm in the battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife in 1797, so obviously after that happened he couldn’t use it anymore, he didn’t have an arm. So to say, it is very likely, and quite logical to guess that the idea of original “Nelson” was actually that of half-nelson (and not a full-nelson), which still is the most popular catch wrestling throwing and rolling technique, that is locking person’s arm in that peculiar “pillory” way and thus disengaging it, causing a person problems with mobility or resistance, locking them, then giving pressure on the back of his neck usually combined with the crotch or leg/foot holds flipping or rolling him right onto his both shoulders. But of course, it is just me guessing. Further in the text, I shall speak more about the guessing game and its significant role in my wrestling history studies.

The earliest reference to South Lancashire wrestling traditions goes all the way back to the Elizabethan times, an Ashtonian A Bear Story is the oldest such record and is a great example of local wrestling folklore.

A BEAR STORY.
(Ashton-under-Lyne, XVI c)

“A quaint local tradition tells of the time when a huge bear, which had been tamed was kept in the Ashton district, and "baited" at intervals as an attraction to sportsmen. The story relates how Bruin was brought to a certain hostelry the night before the baiting day, and fastened securely within the confines of the brew-house. As the night wore on, a troublesome customer, who watched, was an expert wrestler, declined to quit the premises until "he'd wrastled som'dy. He didn' care who". As a last resource the landlord consulted the bear's custodian, who, being willing it was arranged that the intoxicated wrestler should be introduced to Bruin. The information was conveyed to the would-be gladiator that his match was waiting for him in the brew-house, and no time was lost by our hero. It was now pitch dark as the door closed upon the pair, and soon the scuffling within told of the unwitnessed conflict. Soon, however, cries were heard for assistance. The door was opened, and the discomfited wrestler liberated. Bruised, breathless, and sobered, he ignored for a time the question of his friends, but at length expressed himself thus:- "By gum, chaps, who is ho.... he's squozzen me to some tune. He has a grip an' a hauve.... but aw could ha' downed him if he hadn't had his topcoat on".

This old short-story shows the animalistic nature of the Lancashire wrestling traditions. Their wrestling was similar to how the bears wrestle. They grab however they want and they fell each other from the knees. Interestingly very similar to this bear-stories circulated in the West Riding of Yorkshire.

Catching any hold of your opponent for the purpose of felling him wasn’t accepted as normal wrestling behavior  in England, though it is fair to say that it was not unknown. It’s just that it was not considered a fair wrestling action. Even Shakespear refers to as such that in his famous As You Like It. There are also several medieval churches misericords that feature leg holds too, to only show it as a reaction of a defensive wrestler being kicked by his adversary above the knees and etc. So to say, as an unfair response to an unfair action. Despite all that there was understanding in Lancashire that wrestling which was part of up and down fighting wasn’t really a fair wrestling which just like everywhere else in England was a catch-holds above the waist style, it looks like sometimes they even negotiated the kind of wrestling which was allowed in the fight.

“If you must fight do it in Lancashire fashion. Rough and tumble; in-lock and out-lock, cross-buttock; and when you get him down fettle and purr him.”

The above passage from A Merchant Pirate, by E. Stirling  (which also is featured in John Manesty The Liverpool Merchant), clearly shows that in this particular fight a fair upright wrestling represented by such techniques as in-lock, out-lock and cross-buttock was accepted, and they don’t suggest typical Lancashire wrestling grabbing both legs behind the knees lifting shoulder-high and flipping him backwards on his head.

WRESTLING CATCH AS CATCH CAN fashion in the 16-17c sources.

The great English educator Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611) thus writes on wrestling, 1581: “Wherfore not to deale with the catching pancraticall kinde of wrastling, which used all kindes of hould, to cast and overcome his adversarie, nor any other of that sort, which continuance hath rejected, and custome refused, I have picked out two, which be both civill for use, and in the using upright without any great stouping, the one more vehement, the other more remisse. 

Another famous English educator Francis Gouldman (1607-1688) in his Latin-English vocabulary (1664) also gives definitions of such freestyle of wrestling.

-Pancratium, a manner of wrastling, wherein one laboureth by all meanes he can overthrow the other.

-Pancraticus, Pancratiastes, he that in wrastling with hande, foote, and all other meanes laboureth to cast his adversarie.

A very valuable historical reference to such pancratical approach to the game of wrestling comes from an open to all challenge issued by the certain “servants of Lady May” at the annual Grand May Day Games Tournament in Greenwich Park during the times of Henry VII.

WRESTLING CATCH AS CATCH CAN fashion at the 16c Tourney.

“The gentlemen then intreated the King to sign the articles with his own hand, as sufficient licence for the heralds to publish the same, in such places as might be thought requisite. The King accepted their offer, and granted their petition, at the same time promised to reward the best performer at the justs royal, with a ring of gold, set with a ruby; and the best performer at the tournament, with another golden ring, set with u diamond, equal in value to the former.”

“There were also certain gentlemen, who styled themselves the servants of Ladye Maie, in honour of that month, who gave a challenge to be performed at Greenwich, the articles of which were,

"Imprimis The fourteenth daie of Maie shall be redye in the field certaine gentlemen perteyning to the Ladye Maie, armed for the tilt, in harneis thereunto accustomed, and there to kepe the fielde, in such place as it shall please the kynge to appoint, from 2 of the clocke, till 5 at the afternoone, to run with every commer 8 courses; and thus the answerers all answered and served, that then if there be any that desireth for their ladye's sake other 4 courses, it shall be granted, so the hower be not past, if it be then at the Queene's pleasure.

"The seconde daye to shoot standart arrowe and flighte with all commers; he that shootes the standart furthest to have a prise, and so in like case of the arrow of the flight.

The third day, with swordes rebated, to strike with every commer 8 strokes, in waye of pleasure, and four strokes more for any of the commer's mistress sake under the above restrictions, and the Queene's pleasure. 

"The fourth day, to wrestle all manner of ways, at the pleasure of the commers.

"The fifth day, armed for to fighte on foote with speares in their hands rebated, and their swords by their sides for the battle, and there with speare and sword to defend their barriers, that is to say, with speares 8 strokes, whereof two with faone," and 6 with strokes; and that done, to drawe their swordes and strike 8 strokes every man, to his best advantage, with gripe or otherwise, and four strokes for a lady, under the above restrictions,

"The sixth daye, to caste the barre on foote, and with the arme both heavie and light.

"At these tournois, the challenger doth engage to come in harneis for the tilt, without targe or brochett,' woolant piece over the head, rondall' over the garde, rest of advantage, fraude, deceit or other malengine." Some time after this, four gentlemen challenged all comers at the same place. to the feate called the barriers, with the casting speare, and the targatt, and the bastarde sworde. And one with the speare hedded with the morn, and 17 strokes with the sworde point and edge rebated, without close or griping one another with handes, upon paine of such punishment as the judges for the tyme being should thinks requisite.”

WRESTLING, HORIZONTAL FASHION.

Not only the practice of taking pancratical holds was main feature of Lancashire wrestling, besides having an upright concept of wrestling game in South and East Lancs wrestling was also seen as a skill of immobilizing opponent on the ground in any position, not necessary on his back. As a matter of fact in eastern parts of Lancashire County they had two kinds ow wrestling games, the vertical wrestling for a back-fall and the horizontal wrestling which often time started with one of the two prostrating themselves and letting their opponents to try to what they called “pin them”. This pinning wasn’t our modern freestyle/Greco kind of pinning. Their old Lancs pinning simply meant to hold fast your opponent on the ground in a position from which he cannot extricate himself.  The similar “pining” terminology and concept was used locally for the barbarous games of bull and bear baiting. That Lancs horizontal wrestling game co-existed with a newborn Lancashire catch wrestling for decades, and was still practiced even in the 1860s.

May 1836, Wrestle/Fight at Stockport, Cheshire.

“FATAL OCCURRENCE.-On Friday evening two hatters, named Wm. Barrett and Jas. Heyes were drinking together at the Golden Lion public house, Middle Hillgate, when, about eight o'clock, the conversation turned upon wrestling and fighting.  Heyes said to Barratt "there's not a man in company who can hold me down on the floor five minutes," and offered to wager a shilling. Ultimately Barrett accepted the challenge for 6d. Heyes accordingly laid himself down, and two unsuccessful efforts were made by the other to "pin him". Seeing that Barrett was unable to contend with him, Heyes volunteered to show "him how it was done;" but he declined once or twice having anything more to do with him, and sat down. The money was put into the hand of a man named Cooke, who was also in the room, and, from Barrett's statement the next day, it would appear that he got up and asked Cooke for his deposit. While doing so, Heyes, who is a very athletic man, went behind the other, and by unawares seized him under the arms, and directing his own upwards towards the shoulders, closed his hands at the back of the head, which he pressed forwards, and then forced him to the ground.”

1865, Blackburn Wrestle/Fight.

---There were others, but I did not know them. Longworth and Counsell began "horse playing" (fighting without malice), and afterwards they began fighting in earnest in the lobby. I did not go out of the kitchen to see them, as I was playing at puff and dart. Counsell and Longworth came back into the kitchen, and then I heard a noise in the back yard and went to see what---

“In the course of the quarrel, Longworth offered to fight the prisoner Counsell for 5s, and he agreed to go down upon his knees to begin with, as a sort of advantage to Counsell. The result was that they got to wrestling, as some of them call, it, or to fighting, as it is called by others. They got hold of each other, and went upon the ground, and, I believe, had repeated falls. However, eventually, is the course of the struggle, they got out into the backs.”

“There was going to be a pigeon fly and some words took place about it. Longworth "picked" Counsell in front and Counsell" picked" back and they began "rawling" and tried to throw one another. They at last got into the lobby and Dickinson asked them to give over or he should be getting fined. By this time they had got to earnest, and they were both down in the lobby. Longworth began to jowl Counsell's head against the floor and I pulled him off.”

“…and they struggled into the back yard. I did not go out into the yard. I do not know why they were wrestling, there was no wager on. They thought of betting 5s, but the other man had no brass. The men who wrestled were Longworth and Counsell. I saw Hayhurst and Hinchcliffe go out into the yard. They went out to watch the other two wrestling. They were out in the yard about six minutes.

The most famous 19c English writer on wrestling Walter Armstrong, who himself was a successful wrestler, and the first official Amateur champion wrestler of England, thus spoke of ground wrestling.
“Ground wrestling, however, which means, if it means anything, simply a kind of dog-fight on the ground, is utterly opposed to our notions of sport, and can never find favour in this country ; indeed, Lancashire is the only county in England where it is practiced.” 
“Ground wrestling, in the opinion of most people qualified to discuss the subject, ought never to have been introduced into this country, as it is decidedly un-English, and calculated to bring an ancient pastime into disrepute. There can be no objection to the catch-hold system," first down to lose "the fall, to catch hold above the waist without being restricted to any particular grip. In a " first down to lose " contest, the referee has not the same difficulty in giving a decision which he must experience in all " three point" matches.”
Armstrong was very familiar with English wrestling history  and his judgement of ground wrestling as being something “foreign” or “barbaric” is based on his deep knowledge of English wrestling culture and understanding of traditional English wrestling values, it without shadow of a doubt was a fair and objective judgement, and should be trusted .
ENGLISH WRESTLING HABITS.

When it comes to the actual English wrestling habits the researcher will always face and have to answer the following questions: What is a fair-hold and what counts as a fall. I will try to answer these here to the best of my knowledge and my opinion is based on extensive materials which I has collected over the years of studies.

It does look like a fair hold was hold of jacket (prior the introduction of jackets it was a ‘coler’ and ‘holster’ the tools that were used by wrestlers to take holds of), whether it was a perfectly fit traditional English fustian jacket, or a loose Cornish canvas jacket, still the hold of the jacket was generally accepted as the fair hold. But that doesn’t mean that to wrestle the men had to exclusively wear clothes. There are enough of evidences which show that in some regions men wrestled bare-chest, and in this case it was just the holds of any part of the body above the waist. It does look like originally the concept of the fair fall, a fall, everywhere in England was the same and it was a flat horizontal fall straight onto the whole back.

Another important question related to this subject is whether it is fair to shift holds after the initial hold was taken. In certain localities they insisted that real fair wrestling is a fixed hold struggle when two grab each other alike and from that hold try to fell one another flat onto his back. A perfect example of such approach to wrestling game is a Norfolk and Linclon traditions in which wrestlers would take hold of each other either by collar and elbow or by the collars alone and try to give a fall from that particular hold.

Even Sir Thomas Elyot (1496-1546) in his famous Gouvernour speaks of “laying mutually their hands over one another’d necks with the other hand they hold fast each other by the arms and clashing their legs together they enforce themselves with strength and agility to THROW DOWN EACH OTHER”. In this case there is no mention of any specific wrestling tools like “collers” etc, the author advises to practice a fair neck and arm hold and try to fell opponent from that hold, stressing that this particular play is about using feet and legs for throwing.

It does look like often time a fair fall on the back was substituted with e flat fall on either back, side or belly, this system was adopted in Norfolk in the early 1800s and promoted by the local wrestler called Charles Layton. In Lincoln they didn’t adopt new rules and still continued practicing the fair back fall tradition. A good example of that old English fixed hold collar and elbow wrestling is a famous 1825 match between Cannon and Carney.

Below is an interesting reference to the Devon wrestling traditions from the early 1800s, and they suggested such “Norfolk” kind of falls in their competitions.

Agricultural Surveys: Devon (1808). By Charles Vancouver.

"Athletic Exercises.-The athletic exercise to which these people are mostly addicted, is that of wrestling. This is pursued with great fervour and emulation, by the young farmers and peasantry in the country. It is common on these occasions for a purse of six, eight, or ten guineas, to be made by gentlemen fond of promoting this play, and a day is appointed for its being wrestled for, generally near some large village or market-town. The lists are prepared by a ring formed with stakes and a single rope, from fifteen to twenty yards in diameter, and in which it will appear that the winner of the purse must toss or throw down five of his adversaries. There seems to be no regulation with regard to the hold they take of each other. The collar, arm, or any part above the waistband, that most conveniently presents to the combatants during the contest, which sometimes continues from ten to fifteen minutes, and in which is displayed much activity, strength, and adroitness, whilst the shins of the party are often found streaming with blood from the sharp and violent blows they receive from each other, but which on no account are ever permitted to be given above the knee.

The usual form is to shake hands before and after the contest, and it rarely happens that the play is followed with boxing, or that any grudge or ill-will is continued from the conquered to those that may have thrown them. The play generally begins between two and three o'clock in the afternoon, and so well matched are the combatants, that the victor is frequently not declared till after midnight; in which case the ring is properly lighted, and the same precautions are continued during the whole time to secure fair, and prevent foul play. The moor-men are celebrated for their hardiness, in bearing excessive kicking upon their shins. The ill effects which might be expected to result from such violence, is very soon carried off by their excellent habit of body, and the peculiar temperament of their constitutions.

In the outset of the play, every man who becomes a standard for the purse, must first throw two men on their back, belly, or side; eight of these standards must be made from the primary competitors for the single play ; and when the standards are thus made, they each receive a crown. These eight playing, four of them must fall, the other four then engage, two of whom must fall; when the still standing two enter to decide the purse, and the second best man, or he who is last thrown, usually receives about one in five upon its amount. Three tryers or conductors of the lists are appointed, who decide all disputes immediately, and without appeal."

Interestingly but in 1820s in Ashburton, Devon this tradition was neglected and they switched back to the fair back falls as were practiced in the neighboring Cornwall and elsewhere in England.

THE GUESSING GAME.
The famous Chester Mystery Play dated back to the early part of the 15c, mentions a certain wrestling match between a young man called Trowle and his three adversaries, the shepherds, who also were his employers.

“Trowle boy…come eat a morsel with me, and then wrestle will we here on this mold (moor)…On this ground thou shall have a fall, TAKE A GRIP…Both your backs here to me bends.

From the short Chester cycle reference to wrestling we understand that it was a certain grip that wrestlers had to take before starting the struggle. A specific grip and from that grip they were to show a fair play. Very likely it in this case it was an above and under bear hug, that bent the backs of the losers.

Remains unsolved a mystery of the long forgotten Bedfordshire wrestling. We do know that it existed; we know that it ceased to exist. But what was it? I will try to put all the historical references and facts we have on this matter and try to solve this old enigma. With irony I say: Let’s give it a shot.

1. In this short paragraph Parkyn says that Bedfordshire was an inplay style of wrestling, which means that it was a close struggle, a clinch-style, not wrestling at the stretched arms like the Norfolk collars-outplay was.

“I never could hear that the women approved of the Norfolk out-play, the rending and tearing of waistcoats, kicking and breaking of shins, and rendering them so tender, they could not endure to be rubbed; but that their inclinations were the strongest for the Bedfordshire inn-play, and for such as approve themselves to be good at the Cornish close-hugg.”

2. In the above paragraph Parkyn compares it to Cornish close-hug. But what was it? From the below 1827 text by anonymous Cornish wrestler Sam Sam's Son we learn that Cornish hug is nothing but a regular above-and-under hold.

“Both grasp alike, and not much science is required. It only takes place where each conceives himself to be the stronger of the two. It is either right or left. If right, each man has his right hand on the other's loins on the left side, and his left hand on the right shoulder; they stand face to face, and each strives to draw his adversary towards him, and grasp him round the waist, till the hug becomes close, and the weakest man is forced backward - the other falling heavily upon him. This is a very sure and hard fall”.

3. In his writings Parkyn compares Bedford to the original Cornish inplay wrestling, a style which they practiced in Cornwall before the jackets were invented and introduced. But what kind of wrestling was it? From the Carew's famous Survey of Cornwall (1603), we know that original Cornish wrestling was a belt style of wrestling. Belt wrestling is a perfect example of an inplay. Actually whatever technique you apply in belt wrestling, it’s going to be an inplay.

“This hath also his laws, of taking hold only above girdle, wearing a girdle to take hold by, playing three pulls, for trial of the mastery, the fall-giver to be exempted from playing again with the taker, and bound to answer his successor, &c.”

Putting all of the above, based on historical documents, using common sense and solid logic we have the following: Bedfordshire style was an above-and-under clinch (equal fair hold) of the belt style of wrestling, pretty much the same as the international FILA belt wrestling, though there is a good possibility that the rules weren’t that strict, and demanded only one hand to be on the belt at the same time the other hand could grab everywhere above the waist, same as the contemporary Cornish was. Maybe? Anyways, it was worth trying, said I to myself with a good amount of humor, and moved on.

A FAREWELL MESSAGE.
Of course it is again me guessing, just like I did with almost everything, you can see it everywhere in all my studies, I collect as many facts as I can, for as long as I can, in order to be able to make a fair judgement, to envision the wrestling game of that era, to have my own opinion on the matter of my study, of course it is always going to be very subjective, I have to guess, yet my “fantasy” (I think I finally have a proper word for it) would be always based on solid facts and on understanding of the local wrestling traditions which I developed over two decades of continuous studies. But what isn’t subjective?

Though, I want to recommend everyone who starts their “researcher” journey that they first study the wrestling culture of the region, before even trying to misinterpret some texts from another century when they simply do not understand the culture of that region, do not actually understand what they read. How many times that happened? A modern researcher who grew up on MMA culture (most of them did, this is our reality) would come across some Renaissance, or even earlier than that, a Medieval “wrestling” document, and all they see would be the “deadliest and most vicious submissions” judo-style performed by  the “poor and oppressed yomen” in England, or elsewhere in Western Europe. Many “researchers” from that category cannot even read and clearly envision the perfectly documented 19c catch wrestling game, they start fantasizing (this time in a very true meaning of the term) about something that has never taken place, never existed in that time period and in that particular region, and would have been considered foreign, unacceptable in the local culture, so yeah I am talking about the 19c newspaper reports, I am not even talking about the Medieval stuff.

Another unhealthy exaggeration, which happens very often, is trying to project the “wrestling syllabus” of self-defense onto the actual wrestling traditions of the region, I meant to say that traditional wrestling is a game of wrestling, and wrestling as part of self-defense is something else. A serious scholar should avoid doing that too.

Also, a serious researcher should accept the fact that they aren’t going to find a newspaper report from the 1400s, or let’s say from the 1500s with a detailed description of the match, and rules and conditions of the game being provided too. It always going to be a very short note, as to who played, who won, and where that happened. And maybe the very English, that the “collers were worn”, and that “shins were broken” as well. Considering that, yes, everyone will have to start guessing, yet, let it be a healthy guessing, based on deep knowledge of the studied era and understanding of the wrestling traditions of the region.

And please, dear researchers do not overthink what you read in those reports from the past. When it comes to the times, that are that far away in time from us, we are talking a very basic wrestling (as to “how to fell a person from their feet”) knowledge, nothing related or even remotely comparable, or resembling to what you learned in your MMA gym. Plus, approach your research with some sense of humor and irony, do not try to be too serious about “your stuff”, that is also very helpful, and healthy.

And finally, many of those “matches of old” were prize-wrestling, which is another fancier word for pro wrestling. Taking that under consideration we should understand that this “game” never was about “who is the best”, but was a predetermined finish affair in which “wrestlers” were nothing but employees of an organizer of the event, and the ultimate goal of such enterprise was to make a good show which can attract crowds and get the maximum turnover off it…and then repeat, and repeat, and repeat it again.

And then, considering all of these…Good Luck, my friends! Research continues.

Ruslan C Pashayev is an expert-member of the Traditional Sports Team of the Instytut Rozwoju Sportu i Edukacji (the Institute of Sport Development and Education), Warsaw, Poland.

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