Worstelen (Netherlands & Flanders)

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This article in the form of the summary of Dutch and Flemish folk wrestling traditions and the overall success of my studies would have been impossible without the help which I received from my dear friends Mr. Paul Lengkeek of Utrecht, the Chairman of the KNKF, Mr. Erik de Vos of Ameland, and Mr. Jannes Huizing of Groningen, all of the Netherlands, also the staff of the Leyden University, and of the W.S.V. Simon Stevin (the study association for Mechanical Engineering at Eindhoven University of Technology), as well as the scientific circles of South Africa which included the staff of the Voortrekker Museum, the researchers of The Heritage Foundation (Die Erfenisstigting) and of the Western Cape Archives and Records Service, and from the top class professional historians of the University of Pretoria and the Stellenbosch University and its Library staff. As well as from many of my Afrikaner Friends, who are dear to my heart, they shared with me information on the Boers culture and heritage. Thank you all, I appreciate your time and help.

The Dutch folk style of wrestling Worstelen was practiced in the historical Low Countries, which included the modern day Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg as well as some parts of France and Germany.

It appears that historically organized pro-wrestling wasn’t as common in the Low Countries as let’s say it was in England. Different kinds of wrestling games which were popular among the local farmers (boers), along with cudgels, were played during various folk and religious festivals such as Kermis van Sint Joris/Kermis of St. George (Patron of Military and Martial Arts).

The wrestling styles (worstelen, wrestling or werpen/gooien throwing) of Dutch people existed in two distinctive modes.

Painting: "An elegant crowd watching men wrestling in a landscape"
by unknwon, Flanders, 17c
Description: Stoeijen

Among the wrestling techniques used by the Dutch/Flemish farmers were aanklampen (catching holds) and vasthaken (hooking legs). Both of those wrestling skills are shown on a 17th century painting by unknown Flemish artist called “An elegant crowd watching men wrestling in a landscape.” On this painting the wrestlers are shown barefoot and their only attire is either a drawers or a loincloth. Notably, the portrayed on this painting catch-hold of one of the two pairs of wrestlers is a typical pro wrestling opening hold when wrestlers grab by the back of the necks and elbows. Plukharen (grasping hair) and Spinnevoeten (kicking) as well as other non-wrestling or deliberately brutal acts, despite being strictly prohibited in the wrestling contests, were still widely practiced.

Before the match the two boers negotiated the wrestling conditions of the match, whether it’ll be Lyfvat or Lijf Tegen Lijf.

Lyfvat (Lijfvat, Lijfvatten) was an equal above and under grip around the torso/waist (German Bauern-Griff, Peasants Grip). Originally it was a fixed hold archaic trial of strength. The objective of the original Lyfvat match was either to unbalance opponent without using any wrestling techniques or simply lift him off his feet and take him down. In that game the physical strength was a decisive factor. Over the time this trial of strength evolved into a new wrestling style Lyfvat Neergooien/Ondergooien. In the Late Middle Ages the Lyfvat Hug became a common opening clinch hold in wrestling matches. To make such hold more firm often the wrestlers were wearing belts, in this case it was “one hand to the belt” and with the free hand wrestlers were allowed to catch any part of the person’s body above the waist. After taking the initial holds wrestlers didn’t have to maintain it; they were allowed to break, switch and adjust their opening holds as often as they pleased. According to the common rules of Medieval Lyfvat Worstelen any catch-hold of the torso above the waist (holds from hips to the shoulders) and arms-holds were allowed. Holds of the neck and head were prohibited. Lyfvat was a standing wrestling style (flying falls only to count). The competitor’s core physical strength as well as his arm strength was a decisive was a decisive factor in that style. The popular throwing techniques were: hip and back throws (cross-buttock and buttock, arm around the waist), throw over the shoulder (Flying Mare), Flying Horse (wrist and body hold, bodyslam), Bear-Hug and rear Bear-Hug Throws, bridging throws (Suplexes). There also was a variation of Lyfvat Worstelen which allowed holds of neck and head. Use of legs and feet for throwing (hooking legs and tripping) wasn’t allowed in that style. The rules of Lyfvat Neergooien/Ondergooien required unbalancing or taking the opponent off his feet and throwing him down, with or without the attacker falling himself. To win the match the wrestler had to throw his opponent on his back, and whether he landed “sitting” or “lying” he is considered defeated. In this style only flying falls were legal.

"Stoeiende putti in een landschap"
Putti wrestling in a landscape
by Jan van Vianen, Netherlands, 1686
Description: Stoeijen

The professional Lyfvat wrestling matches were a common entertainment at the court of Philip The Good (1396-1467) Duke of Burgundy in Brussels, Flanders (present-day Belgium). The great account of such contests is given in “The Travels of Leo of Rozmital, 1465-1467” (a XV century document first published in Stuttgart in 1844, Latin text Pages 25-26). Not to shock the ladies who were also present at the matches the men weren’t allowed to wrestle naked and had to compete clothed in tunic and hose. The conditions were "taking any hold above the waist is fair". Three flat, or horizontal falls, when a thrown wrestler lands on either his back, side or stomach to decide the winner. The thrower has to retain his feet, i.e. maintain the standing position.

The 1577 book by Raphael Holinshed (c. 1525 - before 1582) called "Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland" on Page 15 of Vol.1, Part 1 features an engraving by the famous Flemish artist Marcus Gheeraerts the Elder (c. 1520- c. 1590) which depicts a wrestling match between Corineus and Gogmagog. The antagonists are shown wearing an elaborate harness around their shoulders and the upper torso. This harness was a Medieval pro-wrestling tool which was designed for wrestlers to take various holds by it, and attempt throwing their opponent; a harness consisted of a number of joined together leather straps. Notably, a harness of such design was unknown in England during the Middle Ages, and instead other pro-wrestling tools were commonly used (see the article on traditional English Catch-Hold style of wrestling). In that image the opponents are shown leaning towards each other, they stand with their feet wide apart and their knees are slightly bent which assumes the push, pull, sway and lift techniques, and as if they aren't going to use their legs for throwing at all. As a matter of fact hooking legs and tripping feet was a core of English folk wrestling (the noble art of tripping). Considering these things it's very possible that English wrestling customs were unknown to the Flemish painter and he simply painted the Dutch/Flemish Lyfvat wrestling he was familiar with. Lyfvat was a common pro-wrestling style in the Low Countries during that time period.

Among the best visualizations of the Lyfvat Neergooien/Ondergooien wrestling style are the painting by a Flemish master Michael Sweerts (1618-1664) called “Men wrestling before a crowd” and the engraving called “Wrestling between Virtue and Vice” (#1) by another famous Flemish a Baroque artist named Pieter Van Lint . In both cases wrestlers are shown wearing “special belts”.

In 19c the Lyfvat wrestling was revived in Western Europe by the German Gymnastic Society. And it was Lyfvat that became the only official wrestling style in both Germany and the Netherlands. All amateur and professional wrestling competitions which involved local athletes were conducted under the rules of Lyfvat wrestling. In 1888 during the celebration of the Princess Day in Amsterdam (Netherlands) an open to all traditional wrestling tournament was held. This championship tournament was part of the folk sports competitions. The rules of traditional wrestling they used were very simple: the wrestlers try to throw their opponent onto his back from standing position. Only taking holds from hips to shoulders (including arms) are allowed. Tripping feet is expressly prohibited. In all official documents this style was simply referred to as wrestling but the proper historical name of that style of wrestling was Lyfvat. The champion wrestler of the 1888 wrestling tourney received a gold watch. In 1889 the Princess Day again featured an open to all wrestling competition. This time it was a simpler version of Lyfvat, the fixed cross-hold (above and under hold, back-hold) wrestling in which tripping was also not allowed.

The below info is about the 19c wrestling style which was practiced by the members of Turvereins (Turner gyms) in Germany, Netherlands, Belgium and even in the United States. This style was the old Germanic wrestling which since the Middle Ages was known as LYFVAT (Lijf-vatten, or the torso-holds). As a matter of fact Turnvereins didn't invent it, they just revived this old style.

Old Dutch Sources. –
“WORSTELEN, stryden, malkander om't lyf vatten om zyn tegen party, neer te gooyen . Lutter, se prendre corps à corps pour jetter son adversaire par terre. v.n. (Nieuw Nederd en Frans woordenboek, Vol. 1, Page 1308. 1701, by Pieter Marin).”

A wrestling style called Lyfvat Neergooien survived in South Africa among the Boer (Afrikaner) population until the beginning of the 20c.
19 c Dutch Sources.
"Het grijpen is vrij, mits zonder aanloop en slechts aan bovenlijf van schouders tot heup en aan de armen. Pijnlijke grepen, scheppen, beentje lichten en slaan met het hoofd is ten strengste verboden. Hij, die deze bepalingen niet opvolgt, wordt onmiddellijk van verdere deelneming uitge sloten. Diegene van een paar, die het eerst met het achterste gedeelte van zijn lichaam, hetzij zittend of liggend den grond aanraakt, of zich overwonnen verklaart, verliest; op den grond wordt niet voortgeworsteld. Wanneer beide op de zijde vallen, begint men op nieuw. Bij het bevel van "halt" van de jury moet het worstelen onmiddellijk gestaakt worden."

19 c German Sources.
“Diese auch in der deutschen Turnerei geübte Kampfesweise beschränkt den Angriff von der Schulter bis zur Hüfte. Bein und Stopfgriffe sind untersagt und es darf nur von vorn an griffen werden. Auch wird am Boden nicht weiter gerungen, sondern die Gegner müssen aufstehen und von neuem angreifen. Besiegt ist meist der, welcher mit der Rückseite des Körpers sitend oder liegend den Boden berührt.”

1) Der Angriff ist nur mit flacher Hand und zwar von den Schultern herab bis zur Mitte des Körpers gestattet.

2) Das Sinsetsen der Nägel, das Fusstellen, das Schlagen und Stoßen mit Fäusten, Fussen oder andern Körpertheilen ist durchaus unerlaubt.

3) Nur Derjenige ist als wirklicher Sieger anzuers kennen, weiche beibe Schultern seines Gegners auf ben Boden parirt.

19 c English Sources.
“In this, strength and stamina are the chief factors, and the main object is a full hold. Both arms are placed around the opponent's body below the armpits, so as to lift him, if possible, off the ground and throw him on his back. It is permissible to shift the hands about unlocked; but the wrestlers are forbidden to catch hold of the legs, or touch below the waist. Tripping and entrapping by movements of the feet or legs are forbidden also. The back may not be presented; hence the buttock and cross-buttock cannot be employed. The fall is when both shoulders touch the ground.”

19 c American Sources.
"Wresting is one of the best, if not the best of all exercises. The boys should be matched according to size and weight. The age also should be taken into consideration. A ring, at least 15 feet in diameter, should be drawn around the wrestlers, so as to insure sufficient space and good air. Before and after the encounter, the boys shake hands. The boys stand opposite each other with "fists at sides." Five minutes is allowed in which to secure the best hold. The hold sought for, is to encircle the opponents waist, leaving his arms free, and clasping the hands upon his back. Then by pressing the opponent to one's breast, and raising him from the ground, he is easily thrown. If, at the expiration of the given time, neither wrestler has found a hold, they are stopped by the teacher or judge, and both take equal hold, that is, standing breast to breast, each places his chin over the other's right shoulder; the right arm is thrown over the opponents left shoulder and the left arm under his right arm, both hands resting on his back. There must be no setting of feet or kicking; rudeness of any sort must be prohibited.”

If there were no limitations regarding the catch-holds then it was a local freestyle wrestling called Worstelen, Lijf Tegen Lijf, Wrestling, Body Against Body, all-in wrestling. Even though it was an unrestrained wrestling style it was practiced in the form of a fun wrestling game (joks-worstelen, jocose wrestling). In this style wrestlers started a match either at a distance from each other ready for a sudden attack, or with opening holds such as the Lyfvat Hug, head-holds, or the hand-clasping hold.

Simon Goulart (1543-1628) the Medieval French humanist speaks of the contemporary French, German and Dutch wrestling customs in “Lichamelicke Sterckte” (Physical Strength) a chapter from his book called “Cabinet Der Historien“ (first published in Paris in 1600). He mentioned a certain wrestling style called “Worstelen (Worstelinge), Lijf Tegen Lijf”, or “La Lutte, Corps-à-Corps” which means “Wrestling, Body Against Body” (scuffle, free-for-all wrestling).

There were two kinds of Dutch folk freestyles, 1) standing wrestling, in which the wrestler had to throw his opponent “heels over head” on his back; and 2) up and down wrestling called Stoeijen/To Towze (Touse), To Handle Roughly. Interestingly, the common nickname used by the pro-wrestlers in East Lancashire in the 1800s was that of a "Towzer". The historical connection between Lancashire catch wrestling and Dutch Stoeijen will be discussed further down in the text. The etymology of the word Stoeijen explains the original rules of that wrestling game. The Dutch Soeijen, Flemish Stuwen/Stouwen, German Stauen, and Old English Stowian basically meant to hold back, to restrain, to block or to suspend from any movement. According to the rules of Stoeijen throwing/taking the adversary down wasn’t enough. To win the wrestler had to achieve a dominant/controlling position on the ground and keep his opponent “captured” i.e. immovable and restrained (Dutch vastleggen, Afrikaans vaslê - to capture) for the previously agreed amount of time or make him admit his defeat verbally or by raising his hand. The most common preferable and safe dominant position was when the defeated wrestler was placed flat on his back with the victor being on top. It was the birth of the pinning fall concept. Despite the fact that the Stoeijen was a rough-and-tumble kind of wrestling it was still a wrestling game, meaning that the application of various holds, takedowns and ground wrestling was all it was really about. The act of punching an opponent with the fists (vuistvecht, fist fight) was prohibited in it, and that’s how it was different from a general up and down fight, in which ultimately the objective was (and still is) to knock the opponent out of consciousness using any method.

A painting created by the Dutch and Flemish Renaissance genius artist Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525-1569) in 1560 titled “Children's Games” depicts the Stoeijen wrestling among other games which were popular in Netherlands and Flanders during the Middle Ages. It shows two men grappling with each other on the ground, one trying to achieve a basic pro wrestling pin the Cover (lateral or cross press). Similar “struggle for the supremacy” on the ground is depicted on engravings by Dutch artist Jacob Matham (1571-1631) called “Cupid wrestling with Pan” and previously mentioned Pieter Van Lint (1609-1690) called “Wrestling between Virtue and Vice” (#2). Arguably the best visualizations of the Stoeijen wrestling game exist in the form of the misericords’ wood carvings in the Brabantine Gothic churches. Among the most famous such wood sculptures is the one present at the Grote Kerk (Church of Our Lady) in Dordrecht (Netherlands). This piece of 16th century art which is known as the “Boys’ fighting” portrays two boys in head-holds wrestling on the ground.

"Drie paar stoeiende naakte kinderen"
(Three pairs of naked kids frolicking)
Joseph Antoine Cochet, Johannes Popels
Antwerp, ca. 1633-1663

In Dutch freestyle the use of legs and feet for throwing was widely practiced as well but it wasn’t favored since most of the throws and takedowns were given from the catch-holds. “Lift and Throw” technique dominated this style of wrestling.

A famous painting by the Dutch and Flemish Renaissance artist Jan Gossaert (1478–1532), the 1523 “Hercules wrestling with Antaeus”, shows the most classic pro wrestling “Crotch Hold and Bodyslam”. A painting called “Jacob wrestling with the Angel”, by another Dutch painter Bartholomeus Breenbergh (1598-1657) shows Jacob applying on the Angel a “Single Leg High Lift” take down technique.

Among the most popular standing wrestling techniques was the “Bull” (Stier) technique which is when you run into your opponent with your head between his legs, grab him by the thighs or knees, and throw him backwards. This dangerous throw is almost a sure neck-breaker, it’s still utilized in modern pro wrestling and is known as the “Back Body Drop”. Another signature Dutch wrestling move was a throw which is nowadays known as the “Monkey Flip”, it’s when you grab your adversary by the upper arms and place the sole of your foot into his abdomen and by throwing yourself backwards throw him “heels over head”. If the attacker continues the rotational movement backwards with his man he will land on top of him thus achieving the uppermost dominant position and quickly submit him. Both these techniques (the “bull” and the “monkey”) became essential in Lancashire up and down fighting/wrestling, they were imported to English soil by the Flemish weavers who brought their martial art to East Lancashire from Low Countries.

Another brilliant misericords’ art work (also 16th century) of the same school is present in the Church of Our Lady in Aarschot, Flemish Brabant (Belgium). This wood carving shows two ape-like men (typical Medieval Dutch representation of the uncontrolled, bestial nature of men, aka singerie) wrestle with each other; the one having a head-hold of the other who in turn is trying to grab his adversary by the knee. Ironically, the commonly known name of this famous wrestling scene erroneously is “A pair of dancing monkeys”, which is still quite an “appropriate” Medieval name for such a free-for-all and yet jocose wrestling as the Stoeijen was.

Currently in the Netherlands and Flanders there still is a wrestling game for kids of the same name, the Stoeien (modern spelling). The objective of that game is, by using any fair wrestling method at first to take your opponent down and then make him give up by overcoming him on the ground.

According to the information kindly presented by Mr. Paul Lengkeek the Chairman of the KNKF (Koninklijke Nederlandse Krachtsport en Fitnessfederatie/Royal Dutch Strength Sport and Fitness Federation) the rules of Stoeien wrestling which were passed down through generations as an oral tradition actually didn’t change much over the centuries. The upper body techniques, grabbing legs and tripping is allowed. The joint-locks and chokes are prohibited due to the jocose nature of the contests. The objective is to pin the opponent down with his back flat on the ground until a verbal submission (“Genade, mercy or “Ik geef me over”, I surrender).

In an 1836 short story called “Het Spiegelgevecht” by E. Molema from his "De vriend der jeugd, in proza en poezij”, Vol. 1 mentioned three kinds of single combat which were popular among Dutch men, namely: wooden sword fighting, fist fighting and wrestling out of joke (stoeien) in which no one should get hurt. Despite being referred to as a “fun game” such wrestling according to the author is always quite competitive, the wrestlers measure their strengths and strive for the honor of winning the battle. Another detail brought by the author was that in stoeien the wrestlers act as fast as monkeys yet they are very careful and quite precise.

Besides the mentioned above wrestling styles there also was a Kragvat (collar hold) wrestling. It was a standing fixed hold trial of strength, wrestlers were wearing special vest-like jackets to apply the lapels-holds at. The flat back falls which decided the Kragvat contests could be achieved only by pushing, pulling, lifting and swaying techniques, and no use of legs and feet for throwing is allowed. The winner has to retain his feet (neergooi). Currently Kragvat survived as Brassen (or aanhalen, “to bring closer physically, to pull or haul in”; another meaning of this term is “to revel”) a traditional wrestling style of the students of the famous Dutch universities in the cities of Amsterdam, Leiden, Rotterdam, Delft, Utrecht and Eindhoven.

By the beginning of the 20th century traditional folk wrestling styles were long forgotten in the Netherlands and Flanders, but they were still actively practiced by the Boers in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Boers or Afrikaners are South African people of Dutch, Flemish, French (Huguenot) and German descent. Wrestling customs of the Boers were of Dutch/Flemish origin.

In contemporary British sources it was mentioned that Boers were not familiar with the scientific wrestling. That statement is quite understandable since in its core Dutch/Flemish folk wrestling significantly differed from English folk styles. First of all because it allowed holds of any part of the person’s body as well as wrestling on the ground. This was unacceptable in English wrestling styles. Also the traditional English concept of scientific wrestling assumed the proficiency in the “noble art of tripping.” In both the Cumberland/Westmorland Back Hold and the Cornish/Devon jackets style that particular skill was a decisive factor for winning a wrestling match. Notably, the original old Lancashire catch wrestling, which originated from the Dutch/Flemish Stoeijen, didn’t require much knowledge in the tripping discipline either; instead fast catching of an advantageous hold of opponent’s body and take down was the main focus of wrestlers.

Usually the Boers folk wrestling matches along with other rustic sports (the Boeresport) like climbing the slippery pole, foot racing, sack race, leaping, three-legged race, running with an egg in the spoon, tug of war, arm wrestling, archery, spit sheep manure, stick fighting and etc. were played on the annually held festival called the Farmers’ Day (the Boeredag). The games/festival would start with an opening prayer and reading of the Scriptures. It was a day of joy and the main festive gathering of the Afrikaner people of the area.

The 1902 newspaper article thus spoke of the Boers wrestling: “Amongst the young Boers wrestling is exceedingly popular. The champion wrestler of a district is as much thought of as is his confrere in the North of England. Such a man can always have the pick of the prettiest girls in the district for a wife.”

According to the memoirs of the South African politician Sir Walter Stanford (1850-1933), the most powerful man of Queenstown in the 1870s the Dutch farmer Hans Coetzee defeated a famous Italian pro wrestler, who challenged any local, with a “Fireman’s Lift”.

In his memoirs Boer military commander General Ben Bouwer (1875-1938) mentioned popularity of wrestling pastime among the Boer officers. He gives an account of his success in a wrestling match against a local strongman and wrestling champion General Manie Maritz (1876-1940). A horse was at stake in that contest. The famous South African pro wrestling champion Manie Maritz (1925-2018) was the son of that military of the same name.

Besides the Dutch/Flemish folk wrestling styles which were practiced by the adult Afrkaners there also was a wrestling game for local kids called the Ondergooi. The description of that game was given by Ernst Jacobus du Plessis in his book called Gister Keer Terug (Return of Yesterday), 1994 and it also appeared in Tydskrif vir volkskunde en volkstaal (Journal of Folklore and Vernacular), Volumes 46-49, 1990. That game started with two boys having holds of each other around the body, and then by using various feinting maneuvers trying to take the opponent down, get on top of him and manage to maintain the uppermost position for as long as possible.

Notably, the 1704 Dutch religious text mentioned a traditional wrestling game which was popular among the young men (jongens worstelen) called “Onder of Boven” (“under or above”). In its essence that pastime was very similar to the South African Boers’ Ondergooi and West Flemish “Haantje Spelen” games. It was basically a ground-fight, in which the goal is to achieve a mount position and to hold your opponent on his back underneath you (ik leg boven; en dan ist victorie/I am above, and that is a victory) by restraining his mobility and controlling him (onder legt/ underlain), for either a required period of time, or until he gives up all his attempts to reverse his supine position.

The folk wrestling styles of Boers were very popular in the 18th-19th centuries but they slowly became extinct after the introduction of traditional British wrestling styles (namely Cumberland and Westmorland Back-hold, Cornish wrestling and Catch-as-catch-can) in South Africa in the early 1900s. Nowadays the International/Olympic styles of wrestling (namely Graeco-Roman and Freestyle) are the only wrestling styles practiced in South Africa. This research played a crucial role in my understanding of the birth and evolution of the European Catch Hold Wrestling Styles.

Ruslan C Pashayev is an expert-member of the Traditional Sports Team of the Instytut Rozwoju Sportu i Edukacji (the Institute of Sport Development and Education), Warsaw, Poland.